Anti-slavery in Precolonial Africa

Anti-slavery in Africa:

For so long, the entire continent of Africa has been accused by many Western sources of trading in their own people. Very few sources explain clearly how the forces of anti-slavery in precolonial Africa operated. Today I explain in detail what the evidence really says. I also attach a map of the regions that actively traded in slaves, so that we can be clear about what the evidence supports.

Also, it is important to clarify that in many African societies jails in the modern arrangement did not exist, so what today we call prisoners, some academics have lazily called slaves. In the absence of standalone jails, imprisonment of slaves was used to punish treason, murder, grievous bodily harm, rape or kidnapping. Violent prisoners and prisoners of war had to work in the householders of government officials who had the resources to keep them in line. Also debt servants working off their debts have sometimes been called slaves, while similar “white slaves” were called “debt servitude”. (Refer to “White Cargo” by Felicity Kendal)

Which states had little or no involvement in the Trans-Atlantic, Trans-Sahara and Indian Ocean slave trades?

1. Aksum (Ethiopia): Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves. The primary focus of Aksum’s trade was on commodities such as ivory, gold, incense, and agricultural products.
2. Anlo Kingdom (Ghana): Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves.
3. Aro confederacy: Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves. Sales to foreigners of murderers and rapists was used by its courts as punishment or restitution to family of victims.
4. Ashanti Empire (Ghana): Did not trade in slaves but owned slaves. When the hegemony of the empire was challenged through “divide and conquer” tactics by Europe, prisoners of war were taken from any battles that the Ashanti won.
5. Asante Confederacy (Ghana): Did not trade in slaves but owned slaves. When the hegemony of the confederacy was challenged through “divide and conquer” tactics by Europe, prisoners of war were taken from any battles that the Ashanti won.
6. Baguirmi Kingdom (Chad): Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves.
7. Barotse Kingdom (Zambia): Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves.
8. Benin Empire (Nigeria): Did not trade in slaves but owned slaves. The Benin Kingdom first came into contact with the Portuguese in the 15th century AD. Portugal and Benin went on to have good relations for a while, with the representatives of the King of Portugal visiting the Oba of Benin at the time. Benin became a trade hub for the Portuguese, but in the reign of Oba Esigie in 1530 Benin began an embargo – a total ban for 250 years – of the export of all slaves from its ports. In this way, they refused to participate in the transatlantic slave trade. However, in the 18th century, under a new king (Oba) Akenzua I, the slave trade restarted again.
9. Bonoman Kingdom (Ghana): Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves.
10. Bornu Empire (Nigeria): Did not trade in slaves but owned slaves.
11. Buganda Kingdom (Uganda): Did not trade in slaves but owned slaves.
12. Bunyoro Kingdom (Uganda): Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves.
13. Bubi Kingdom (Equatorial Guinea): Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves.
14. Bantu Kingdoms (Various regions in Sub-Saharan Africa): Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves.
15. Carthage (Tunisia): Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves.
16. Fante Confederacy (Ghana): Did not trade in slaves but owned slaves.
17. Imamate of Futa Toro: The Imamate of Futa Tora was a theocratic state located in present day Senegal. It resisted slavery and slave trading from the start. Abdul Kader was the first ruler of the Imamate and he banned the trading of slaves under the instructions of the clerics at the time. In 1785, the French kidnapped three children with the intention of trading them on. Abdul Kader wrote a threatening letter to them and eventually succeeded in getting a deal which prohibited the trading of slaves from his Kingdom and Muslim slaves in general. Thus both Muslims and non-Muslims of Futa Tora were saved from the curse of slavery. The transport of slaves through the Kingdom was also banned, and any slaves were released when the enemy was defeated in war.
18. Gao Empire (Mali): Did not trade in slaves but owned slaves.
19. Galla Kingdoms (Ethiopia): Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves.
20. Garamantes Kingdom (Libya): Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves.
21. Ibibio Confederation (Nigeria): Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves.
22. Ife Kingdom (Nigeria): Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves.
23. Igbo Kingdoms (Nigeria): Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves.
24. Kwararafa confederacy (Nigeria): Did not trade in slaves but owned slaves. Slaves came through defensive wars against the Kanem-Bornu empire and from captured prisoners of war. Kwararafa was a multi-lingual, multi-ethnic, and multi-faith confederation with as many as 25 ethnicities living within the political Union. If further evidence emerges in future, this view may change.
25. Kilwa Sultanate (Tanzania): Kilwa was a prominent Swahili city-state known for its trade in gold, ivory, and other commodities. While it engaged in long-distance trade, including the Indian Ocean trade network, it is believed that Kilwa’s economic success was primarily based on commodities other than slaves. Slave trading was limited.
26. Khoisan Chiefdoms (Southern Africa): Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves.
27. Kongo Kingdom (Angola/Democratic Republic of Congo): Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves.
28. Kuba Kingdom (Democratic Republic of Congo): Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves.
29. Kush Kingdom (Sudan): Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves.
30. Luba Kingdom (Democratic Republic of Congo): Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves.
31. Lunda Empire (Angola/Democratic Republic of Congo): Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves.
32. Mali Empire (Mali): Did not trade in slaves but owned slaves. These came from treason, defensive wars or crimes. Enemies of the state were sold to foreigners.
33. Makuria Kingdom (Sudan): Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves.
34. Maravi Empire (Malawi/Mozambique): Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves.
35. Merina Kingdom (Madagascar): Did not trade in slaves, but owned slaves. Individuals could be enslaved through various means, such as warfare, debt, or as a form of punishment for crimes. Slaves in the Merina Kingdom were often used for agricultural labor, domestic work, and as concubines or servants for the ruling elite.
36. Mombasa: Mombasa, situated in present-day Kenya, was a thriving Swahili city-state engaged in trade and maritime activities. It had a diverse economy, including trade in spices, ivory, and other goods. While the slave trade had a presence in Mombasa, it was not the sole focus of its economic activities.
37. Mossi Kingdoms (Burkina Faso): Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves. The state kept prisoners of wars as slaves from defensive wars. The Mossi Kingdoms’ main socio-economic system was based on agriculture, and while slavery existed within their society, it was not the predominant mode of labor or a foundation of their economic structure. The use of enslaved prisoners of war was more closely tied to the context of defensive wars and the integration of captives into the existing social structure.
38. Ambundu Kingdoms of Ndongo: The Queen of Ambundu, Nzingha Mbande, ruled what is now Angola from 1624 to 1663. During most of her lifetime she fought defensive and attack wars to free and re-settle liberated slaves.
39. Nok Culture (Nigeria): Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves.
40. Nri Kingdom (Nigeria): Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves. Sale to foreigners of murderers and rapists was used as punishment or restitution to family of victims.
41. Oyo Empire (Nigeria): Did not trade in slaves but owned slaves. Slavery was used as punishment for warfare, rebellion, murder, kidnapping or rape, if a criminal was not executed. They were often integrated into the households of the nobility or used for agricultural labor. Over time slaves could marry and integrate into society.
42. Rwanda Kingdom (Rwanda): Did not trade in slaves but owned slaves.
43. Sao civilisation: Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves.
44. Shilluk Kingdom (South Sudan): Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves. The Shilluk society was primarily agricultural, with a focus on farming and cattle herding. Slavery was not a fundamental aspect of their economy or social structure.
45. Sofala city-state: Located in present-day Mozambique, Sofala was a major trading center and port in the Indian Ocean trade network. It was renowned for its trade in gold, ivory, and other goods. Though there is evidence of the presence of slaves in Sofala, the city-state’s economic prosperity was not solely dependent on the slave trade.
46. Soga Kingdom (Uganda): Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves.
47. Songhai Empire (Mali/Niger): Did not trade in slaves but owned slaves.
48. Swahili City-States (East Africa): Did not trade in slaves but owned slaves. Mogadishu was an exception. Zanzibar was also an exception since it launched raids, captured and sold Africans during the 18th and 19th century. It’s important to differentiate between the Swahili City-States as a whole, by excluding Zanzibar, and the specific involvement of Zanzibar in the slave trade. While most Swahili City-States did not heavily participate in the transatlantic slave trade, Zanzibar, as an exception, had a significant role in the East African slave trade during the 18th and 19th centuries.
49. Tuareg Confederation (Sahara): Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves.
50. Wagadu Empire (Ghana): Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves.
51. Wollo Kingdom (Ethiopia): Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves.
52. Wolof Empire (Senegal): Did not trade in slaves but owned slaves.
53. Xhosa Kingdom (South Africa): Did not trade in slaves and did not own slaves.
54. Yoruba Kingdoms (Nigeria): Did not trade in slaves but owned slaves. Slaves were the result of defensive war, treason, murder, kidnapping or rape. Where any city-states violated rules about trading in Yoruba people, they were destroyed and their kingdom ordered never to be re-built such as the Owu (Cotton) kingdom.

Please note that the categorizations provided in this article “Anti-slavery in precolonial Africa” are based on available historical information and may be subject to further research and interpretation. You should do your own research to understand the nuances of each state, Kingdom, theocracy, empire, or region.